Plato was one of the most influential philosophers and thinkers of ancient Greece. As a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle, Plato played a pivotal role in laying the foundations of Western philosophy. Born in Athens in 428/427 BCE, Plato grew up during the Peloponnesian War, which ended the Golden Age of Athens and its flourishing artistic and cultural achievements.
Following the death of his mentor Socrates on the charges of atheism and corruption of the youth in 399 BCE, Plato became completely disillusioned with Athenian democracy. He left Athens and founded his Academy which he was to call his own school where he would teach and write for the rest of his life.
Plato’s philosophy was so deeply influenced by Socrates and his dialectic method of inquiry, which was based on asking questions in order to arrive at the truth. Nevertheless, Plato furthered his teacher’s thought in order to create his own complete system of philosophy comprising metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. Plato’s philosophy revolves around the theory of Forms, where the physical world we perceive is a flawed reflection of perfect, eternal Forms like Truth, Beauty, and Justice. The soul and the wisdom that it seeks by means of reason is the main idea of his philosophy. Politically, Plato imagined an ideal state ruled by educated philosopher kings. He wrote on a wide range of subjects, yet his works had a common thread in that he used reason to find the invariant truths that laid beyond the imperfections of the material world.
Plato had written about 30 dialogues and 12 letters that were Socrates talking to others on central philosophical questions. Dialogues are a form of writing but the philosophical content is regarded as Plato’s own. His works on metaphysics, ethics, education, and politics have left lasting marks in the Western intellectual history for the last two thousand years. Plato’s philosophy is the key to understanding the progress of the civilization of the West. Using this concept, we will look at his main ideas, influences, and criticisms to understand one of the most significant minds in history.
Influences on Plato’s Philosophy
The most crucial impact on Plato’s philosophy was his teacher, Socrates. Socrates never wrote down his thoughts, however Plato, his student, did and recorded them.
Socrates devised a method of inquiry, which he called the Socratic method, whereby he would hold discussions with others through a set of questions. This made people to think of their beliefs and critically examine the knowledge and assumptions. Socrates held the view that philosophy was supposed to be practical and that it was intended to improve people’s lives. It was taught by him that virtue is knowledge and that no person intentionally does evil. Socrates was able to practice his philosophy through asking Athenians questions about truth, justice, beauty and virtue. He confessed he had no wisdom himself, but rather he made others realize their ignorance.
Socrates was condemned to death because he was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and not believing in the divinities the city approved of.
He accepted his sentence willingly as he believed he had a duty to obey the state’s laws. But he also believed he had been right in following his calling to philosophy. Plato was deeply affected by Socrates’ trial and condemnation. This helped motivate his later writings and focus on justice and political order in society.
Plato took Socrates’ lessons on ethics, virtue and justice and built upon them to develop his comprehensive philosophy that touched on metaphysics, aesthetics, political philosophy, theology and epistemology. The influence of Socrates on Plato was profound and much of Platonic philosophy starts with the teachings of Socrates.
Key Concepts of Plato’s Philosophy
Plato’s philosophy contains several key concepts that are fundamental to understanding his overall worldview. Three of the most important ideas in Plato’s philosophy are his theory of forms, allegory of the cave, and tripartite theory of the soul.
Theory of Forms
Plato’s theory of forms states that the world we see around us is just a reflection of the world of ideas or forms that is the real world. Truth of the matter is that the real world is that of ideas, while the physical objects are mere copies. On the other hand, there are many chairs in the physical world that all have the same general form of a chair. Nevertheless, they are only the copies of the perfect physical form of a chair in the other world. Physical objects are defective and short-lived, whereas the ideal forms are flawless, eternal, and unchangeable.
Allegory of the Cave
Plato’s famous allegory of the cave describes the human condition and our limited perception of reality. In the allegory, a group of people are chained inside a cave and can only see shadows of objects projected onto the wall from the light of a fire. To these prisoners, the shadows are their reality. However, if they were to break free from the cave and venture outside, they would discover the illuminated physical objects creating the shadows inside the cave. And if they continued further outside, they would eventually gaze at the sun, representing ultimate reality and truth. The allegory makes the point that most humans rely on imperfect sensory information and do not perceive true reality.
Tripartite Theory of the Soul
Plato theorized that the human soul is divided into three parts – reason, spirit, and appetite. The rational part of the soul seeks truth and knowledge. The spirited part deals with emotions and morality. The appetitive part is concerned with primitive urges and desires. For the soul to be balanced and just, the rational part must control the spirited and appetitive parts. Plato compared the three parts of the soul to the three classes in an ideal society, stating that they must work together harmoniously.
Three Parts of Plato’s Philosophy
Plato’s philosophy can be divided into three main parts: metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
Metaphysics is the area of philosophy that addresses the questions of the fundamental nature of reality. For Plato it is the realm of the Forms which are immutable and eternal that is more real than the physical world which we perceive through our senses. The Forms are abstractions, perfect, and unchanging ideas that exist outside space and time. The whole of our world is imperfectly a representation or “shadow” of these perfect archetypes. Plato held the view that the soul existed before birth and after death and, therefore, true knowledge is recollection of the ideas previously known to the immortal soul.
Epistemology is the discipline that studies the nature of knowledge. Plato holds the view that the true knowledge is the product of reason and not of the senses which only give rise to belief or opinion. The only path to real knowledge is through dialectics, which means using language and logic to lift the veil of the Forms. The Forms are the sources of all truth, goodness, and beauty which are eternal and unchangeable. Real comprehension necessitates the overcoming of sensations and the illusory to reach the Forms through rational contemplation.
Ethics is concerned with the very topic of how we ought to live. For Plato, the highest good is achieved by the harmony of the reason, spirit, and appetite within the soul. Through the wise practice of courage, moderation, and justice, we can live a life of ethics and virtue, in harmony with the transcendent Form of the Good. The ideal state would be led by philosopher-kings who contemplate the Forms and govern with wisdom and justice.
Plato’s Political Philosophy
Plato’s political philosophy is described in his book The Republic which is one of the most famous works ever written. He supported a virtuous government which would be governed by the philosopher kings who would act on the basis of reason rather than their personal interests. Plato was very critical of democracy. He viewed it as a system that puts too much power into the hands of the people who are, usually, irrational, emotional, and easily swayed.
Plato believed in the rule of a philosopher king who is devoted to contemplating the Eternal Forms of the Good because most people lack the wisdom and virtue required for ruling. These would be philosophers kings chosen and trained from early in their lives to have no material attachments or desires so that they can rule justly. The education of these people would be based on the method of dialectic conversations to discover eternal truth about virtue, justice, and the meaning of ruling.
Plato saw democracy as deeply flawed since the masses lack sufficient knowledge to make important political decisions. In a democracy, politicians will simply pander to the unwise desires of the people to gain power, rather than making enlightened choices. Plato believed that democratic equality does not take into account differences in the level of expertise, intellect, and virtue, thus placing the average citizens on the same level as the exceptional political leaders. He thought that in democracies, freedom makes citizens to substitute the desire for reason, thus leading to excess, immorality, and inefficiency within the state.
Plato’s idea of philosopher kings governing over masses has been highly disputed and criticized as elitist. His mistrust of democratic popular rule formed the basis of the thinking of later thinkers, but the idea that a few can be elevated to perfectly rational beings untouched by politics was rejected by many. However, Plato’s criticism of the dangers of majority rule in democracy has had a huge influence on the political discourse by emphasizing the problems of the rule of the majority and the importance of wisdom in leadership.
Plato’s Philosophy of Ethics
Plato’s ethics are based on his theory of forms, which posits an eternal and unchanging world of perfect forms or ideas. In Plato’s philosophy, the human soul is eternal and related to the world of forms. He believed the purpose of human life is to pursue wisdom and align one’s soul with the eternal forms, especially the highest form of the Good. This alignment leads to virtue and justice.
Plato believed that virtue cannot be taught, but it can be pursued through a philosophical search for truth and goodness. The four cardinal virtues in Plato’s philosophy are wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Wisdom is the perfection of rational thought and knowledge of the Good. Courage represents strength and conviction in pursuing the good. Temperance is a self-control and moderation. Justice comprises all virtues and it means harmony both in oneself and in society if people do their appropriate duties and acts according to their appropriate roles.
The idea of justice is crucial in Plato’s ethics. He envisaged the ideal society where justice prevails. This is structured into a trinity of classes – the guardians or rulers who govern, the auxiliaries or soldiers who protect, and the producers who supply all goods and services. There are different positions and duties in each class to keep the state in harmony and justice. Justice comes when each person in their particular class do what is expected of them.
Plato also touched on the topic of justice and its place in the human soul. He saw the soul as having three parts – rational, spiritual, and appetitive. Justice exists when the rational part governs the spirited part, and together they control the appetites. This parallels the ideal state. Plato believed practicing justice leads to harmony and well-being for both society and the individual.
Plato’s View of Rhetoric
Plato was highly critical of rhetoric, which he saw as manipulative and focused on persuasion rather than truth. Plato makes this point in several dialogues, for example Gorgias and Phaedrus, where he argues that rhetoric does not depend on truth or knowledge.
As far as Plato is concerned, rhetoric is the twin of philosophy. Philosophy uses reasoning and knowledge to find the truth, while rhetoric uses persuasion and ornamentation to change the minds and motivate the audiences. Plato claimed that rhetoric appeals to emotions than to truth.
Gorgias, in Plato, depicts rhetoric as a flattering tool used to influence the masses. He maintains that rhetoric is only intended for amusement and gratification, neglecting truth and morality. Plato said that rhetoricians achieve and use power by means of speech.
Plato put a strong emphasis on the fact that communication should be based on dialectic which is a philosophical dialogue that is aimed at the discovery of truth. For Plato, rhetoric is just a matter of probabilities and appearances but dialectic finds absolute truth through reasoning.
Plato argued that rhetoric is harmful when applied to politics and law, because it puts private interests first. In general, Plato considered rhetoric as an art which is used to persuade the masses and based on opinion rather than on knowledge. He advocated that communication should be focused on pursuing and conveying truth.
Plato’s Philosophy on Education
Education was an integral part of Plato’s philosophical writings and beliefs. He felt that the purpose of education was to train good citizens and help provide order and stability in society. Plato believed that children should be trained and educated beginning at an early age, to prepare them for their future roles as guardians and leaders of the ideal state he envisioned in The Republic. The Academy was the cornerstone of Plato’s educational philosophy and was founded in 387 BC. This was one of the first organized schools of Western civilization and continued to operate for hundreds of years after Plato’s death. It offered a varied curriculum that included courses in math, philosophy, physical education, and natural sciences. The school was open to all free citizens of Athens; however, students were selected with rigor for their intellectual capacity.
According to Plato, the Academy should not be a place for only the transmission of specific knowledge, but for the education of future leaders and thinkers. Students were taught general concepts and to think on their own in the search for truth and meaning. The philosophical questions formed the core of the debate. Plato wanted his students to puzzle out the solutions to the big questions and to develop their critical thinking skills. He believed this type of active, inquisitive learning was superior to passive absorption of facts.
The Academy had no specific doctrines or beliefs it forced students to accept. Instead, it aimed to cultivate rational, critical thinkers who could gain greater understanding of reality and themselves. Plato trusted that the process of active learning, reason, and inquiry would lead students towards truth. His educational philosophy valued the learning process itself as much as the knowledge gained.
Plato’s writings and the example set by his Academy went on to have an enormous influence on education in the Western world. His belief in organized, formal education for all citizens and emphasis on cultivating character and reason through learning have been echoed throughout history. The notion of the academy as a place for philosophical reflection and learning remains influential today.
Criticisms of Plato’s Philosophy
Plato’s philosophy has been highly influential but has also faced significant criticism over the centuries. Two major criticisms of Plato’s philosophy include:
●Unavailability of Evidence for Theory of Forms
Plato’s theory of forms is one of his most famous theories. It states that the eternal, non-physical Forms or Ideas are more real than any objects in the physical world. The sensible world is an approximate representation of these perfect and transcendent Forms. Plato does not provide a logical proof, which is not supported by empirical evidence. Critics claim that Plato’s argument is circular and that he provides no proof that the Forms exist. The Forms are the qualities of the sensible things, and we can only grasp the Forms by intuition from these things.
●Elitism
The elitism of Plato’s philosophy is another common criticism. The “Guardians” or philosopher kings are in charge of the ideal society Plato presents in The Republic and they are followed by the auxiliaries and craftsmen. Only those who are Guardians are smart enough to rule, since they are able to make decisions for the sake of the society. The lower classes of workers and artisans are barred from education and the right to participate in politics. The critics say that Plato’s republic is totalitarian since the ruling class controls the society and imposes their vision on everyone. His society of his prescription is without individual rights and freedom. The aristocratic social order and the absence of democratic ideas in Plato’s philosophy have made it controversial.
Conclusion
Plato was one of the most influential philosophers in human history, having a profound impact on essentially every field of study. His philosophical writings covered a wide range of topics including ethics, politics, metaphysics, epistemology, aesthetics, and more. Plato started the first institution of higher education in the West – the Academy in Athens. He was the one who helped to build the foundation of Western philosophy and science, and his work has determined intellectual thinking for more than two thousand years.
Some key points on Plato’s philosophy and lasting impact:Some key points on Plato’s philosophy and lasting impact:
- Plato’s teachings of ethics established virtue ethics, the idea of virtue is an inherent quality that should be pursued for its own sake. This is how philosophy was born, and the ethics and human nature were treated.
- The theory of forms or ideas allowed him to think in terms of existence beyond the physical world. It transformed metaphysics and philosophical discussions on the nature of reality.
- For Plato, human beings were a mixture of three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite. This psychological perspective has proved to be highly influential.
- He led an organized way of education and the application of logic and reasoning in philosophy. The Socratic method served as a basis for philosophical education.
- His Republic was a kind of early model of an ideal state where philosopher kings were at the helms of power. It was this that gave impetus to the emergence of political philosophy as a separate field of study.
- Plato was one of the people who helped to create the dialectical method of inquiry by means of reason and argument. It was this that brought about progress in logic, debate and the scientific method.
- His standpoint on art as imitation is still used as a basis for aesthetic theory. For Plato art was the reflection of truth and morality.
Plato’s work in almost all major areas of philosophy formulated problems, concepts, and methods that are guiding Western thoughts. His thoughts on ethics, politics, metaphysics, education, logic, and the like continue to serve as a foundation for philosophers who came after him. The philosophy of Plato was preserved through his student Aristotle and later neoplatonist thinkers, who made it the most important school of thought long after his death. His school produced the minds that would carry Greek philosophy into the Roman Empire. His legacy lasted for centuries, and therefore he was dubbed “The Father of Western Philosophy”.
